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Volume 13, Issue 2 (2025)
Health Educ Health Promot 2025, 13(2): 387-396 |
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Received: 2025/05/4 | Accepted: 2025/06/21 | Published: 2025/06/30
Received: 2025/05/4 | Accepted: 2025/06/21 | Published: 2025/06/30
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Tagare J R. Physical, Mental, Emotional, Social, Psychological, and Spiritual Dimensions of Well-Being among University Students. Health Educ Health Promot 2025; 13 (2) :387-396
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URL: http://hehp.modares.ac.ir/article-4-80696-en.html
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Department of Physical Education, College of Human Kinetics, University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan, Cotabato, Philippines
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Introduction
Holistic well-being refers to a comprehensive state of health that encompasses various dimensions of human life, including the physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects [1]. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of these dimensions, suggesting that optimal well-being is achieved not merely through the absence of illness but through balance and harmony across all areas of life [2]. This approach views individuals as whole beings whose experiences and health are influenced by multiple internal and external factors [3]. As such, promoting holistic well-being requires addressing more than just physical symptoms; it involves fostering mental clarity, emotional stability, social support, and spiritual purpose [4].
University students today face a range of challenges that significantly impact their holistic well-being. Academically, they often experience pressure to perform, which contributes to stress, anxiety, and mental fatigue [5]. In addition, many students report feelings of isolation, especially those studying far from home or navigating the transition to adulthood, which affects their emotional and social stability [6]. The lack of regular physical activity and poor health habits, such as insufficient sleep and unhealthy eating, further contribute to the decline in their physical well-being [7].
Another pressing issue is the spiritual disconnection felt by many students in modern academic environments. As institutions focus more on academic performance and technological advancement, students may struggle to find meaning, purpose, and inner peace—key elements of spiritual well-being [8]. Furthermore, disruptions brought about by social media, global crises, and uncertainty about the future have made it harder for students to maintain emotional resilience and form deep social connections [9]. These combined stressors often lead to a fragmented sense of self and decreased life satisfaction among university learners [10].
Studies on student well-being consistently highlight the importance of maintaining physical health, which is closely linked to academic performance and overall life satisfaction. Regular physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive function, reduce symptoms of anxiety, and promote better sleep patterns among university students [11]. However, research indicates that many students fail to meet the recommended levels of physical activity due to academic demands and sedentary lifestyles [12]. On the mental health front, increasing rates of stress, depression, and anxiety have been reported among university populations, often attributed to academic pressure, financial stress, and a lack of support systems [13, 14]. Mental well-being is essential for concentration, emotional regulation, and resilience; yet many students hesitate to seek help due to stigma or limited access to mental health services [15].
Emotional well-being plays a crucial role in students’ academic success and overall quality of life, yet many struggle with stress, mood disorders, and emotional instability due to academic pressures and personal challenges [16]. Research indicates that students with strong emotional regulation skills are better equipped to handle setbacks, maintain motivation, and develop resilience in high-pressure environments [17, 18]. However, social well-being also significantly influences emotional health, as students with strong interpersonal relationships tend to experience lower levels of stress and higher life satisfaction [19, 20]. Studies highlight that a lack of social connections, particularly among first-year and international students, can lead to loneliness, social isolation, and even symptoms of depression [21, 22]. Supportive peer networks, mentorship programs, and inclusive campus environments are essential for fostering both emotional and social well-being among university students [23, 24].
Spiritual well-being, often overlooked in academic settings, has been found to contribute significantly to students’ sense of purpose, inner peace, and resilience during times of stress [25]. Research suggests that students who engage in spiritual practices or have a strong sense of meaning in life tend to experience better emotional health and cope more effectively with academic and personal challenges [26]. In parallel, sleep is another critical yet commonly neglected dimension of student well-being, with studies revealing that poor sleep quality and insufficient rest are strongly linked to decreased academic performance, heightened stress, and mental health issues [27]. Many university students suffer from irregular sleep patterns due to demanding schedules and digital distractions, which can lead to chronic fatigue and emotional instability [28]. Promoting spiritual grounding and healthy sleep habits is thus essential for supporting a more balanced and holistic student life [29].
Despite numerous studies addressing individual aspects of student well-being, such as physical health, mental wellness, emotional regulation, social connection, and spiritual growth, there remains insufficient data that holistically assesses these dimensions as a unified construct, particularly among university students in the Philippines. Most existing research tends to focus on singular components rather than examining how these elements interact to shape overall student wellness. This study sought to fill that gap by conducting a multidimensional assessment of holistic well-being among university students, providing a more comprehensive understanding of their lived experiences. The primary purpose of this research was to explore physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual dimensions of well-being to inform more inclusive, targeted, and culturally responsive support strategies for student development and well-being.
This research is important as it provides valuable insights into the holistic well-being of university students, helping respondents better understand their overall health and areas needing support. It contributes to the growing body of knowledge by offering a multidimensional perspective that integrates physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects—an approach that remains limited in the local literature. For the wider academic community, this study presents a novel framework for understanding student wellness in a more inclusive and culturally relevant manner. The findings may serve as a basis for developing targeted interventions, policies, and programs that promote holistic student development in Philippine higher education institutions.
Instrument and Methods
Research design
This study employed a quantitative research design, specifically the descriptive correlational method. Quantitative research focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and generalizations about a population [30]. The descriptive correlational approach, in particular, aims to describe the characteristics of parameters and examine the relationships between them without manipulating any conditions or parameters [31]. This design allows for an objective and systematic investigation of the different dimensions of holistic well-being among university students.
The use of quantitative research, particularly the descriptive correlational design, is most appropriate for this study as it seeks to assess and analyze the relationships among various dimensions of holistic well-being, namely physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects. This method enables the researcher to gather measurable data from a large number of respondents, allowing for statistical analysis and meaningful interpretation of patterns. It also provides a structured approach to exploring how each dimension of well-being relates to the others. Most importantly, it supports the study’s goal of presenting a comprehensive view of student well-being without altering existing conditions.
Respondents and sampling
The study was conducted from October 2024 to May 2025. A total of 1,199 university students selected through simple random sampling participated in the study. Simple random sampling is a probability sampling technique in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring fairness and reducing selection bias [32]. This method was deemed most appropriate for the study as it allows for the collection of diverse and representative data across various academic programs and year levels without favoring any subgroup. By using this technique, the findings can be more confidently generalized to the broader student population, enhancing the validity and reliability of the results.
Research tools
This study adopted a range of standardized tools to measure the multiple dimensions of holistic well-being. Physical activity was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [33], which has a reliability coefficient of 0.80. Mental well-being was measured using the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale [34], with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89. Emotional well-being was evaluated using the Brief Emotional Intelligence Scale-10 (BEIS-10) [35], which has a reported reliability index of 0.84. Social well-being was measured through the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) [36], which has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88. Additionally, spiritual well-being was assessed using the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire (SWBQ) [37], which demonstrated a reliability score of 0.89.
To further assess related constructs, the study included the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) [38], known for its strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91. The WHO-5 Well-Being Index [39] was used as a general measure of subjective well-being, with a reliability coefficient of 0.88. Resilience was measured using the Nicholson McBride Resilience Questionnaire (NMRQ) [40], which has a reported Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83. Lastly, sleep quality was assessed through the Sleep Quality Questionnaire [41], which has a reliability index of 0.86. The use of these validated instruments ensured the accuracy and reliability of the data gathered across the study’s multidimensional framework of well-being.
Statistical analysis
Both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used to analyze the data comprehensively. Descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, mean, and composite mean, were utilized to summarize and describe the students’ physical activity engagement, multidimensional health dimensions, and overall well-being. To test the relationships among the parameters, the study used multiple Pearson correlation coefficients. This statistical technique was deemed most appropriate because it effectively measures the strength and direction of linear relationships between multiple continuous parameters simultaneously. It allowed the researchers to understand how different aspects of health and well-being interconnect, providing a robust basis for interpreting the complexity of the students’ holistic experiences. Through this approach, the study ensured a thorough and reliable examination of the data. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 29 at a significance level of p<0.05.
Findings
Out of 1,199 respondents, 324 students (27.0%) reported low physical activity engagement, 460 students (38.0%) had moderate engagement, and 415 students (35.0%) demonstrated high physical activity engagement. This indicates that a significant portion of the student population fell within the lower and moderate activity levels, with just over a third engaging in high physical activity.
In addition, 95 students (8.0%) were identified as having very low mental well-being, 176 cases (15.0%) with below-average mental well-being, 827 cases (69.0%) with average mental well-being, and 101 students (8.0%) with high mental well-being. This indicates that most students fell within the average category, with only a small fraction experiencing high levels of mental wellness.
Out of 1,199 students, 34 students (3%) were identified as having very low emotional intelligence, 94 cases (8%) with low emotional intelligence, 261 students (22%) with moderate emotional intelligence, 496 (41%) with high emotional intelligence, and 314 (26%) with very high emotional intelligence. This indicates that most students possessed high levels of emotional intelligence.
Also, 329 cases (27.0%) reported low or no social interaction anxiety, 618 cases (51.0%) had mild to moderate levels, 242 cases (20.0%) experienced moderate to high anxiety, and 10 cases (0.8%) reported severe social interaction anxiety. This indicates that a significant portion of the students experienced some form of social anxiety, with many falling under the moderate to high category.
All aspects of spiritual well-being fell under moderate spiritual well-being, with the highest mean in “Beliefs and Life Philosophy” (3.31), followed by “Belief in a Higher Power and Support” (3.25), and the lowest in “Spiritual Struggles or Doubts” (2.85). The grand mean across all components was 3.12, indicating an overall moderate level of spiritual well-being (Table 1).
Table 1. Students’ spiritual well-being
![src=./files/hehp/images/HTML_Publish/80696/1.png]()
Out of 1,199 respondents, 84 cases (7.0%) were likely to be well, 136 cases (11.0%) were likely to have a mild disorder, 168 cases (14.0%) were likely to have a moderate disorder, and a striking 811 cases (68.0%) were likely to have a severe disorder. Thus, the overwhelming majority of students were experiencing significant psychological distress.
Also, 136 cases (11.0%) fell under the category of poor well-being, which may indicate possible clinical depression. Meanwhile, 457 cases (38.0%) were classified as having low well-being, suggesting a need for monitoring or support. A total of 606 cases (51.0%) exhibited good well-being, reflecting positive mental health.
Among the 1,199 respondents, 533 (44.0%) were at the developing level of resilience, 307 (26.0%) had an established level, 196 (16.0%) demonstrated a strong level, and 163 (14.0%) showed an exceptional level of resilience. In addition, 188 students (16.0%) had good sleep quality, while 1,011 students (84.0%) reported poor sleep quality that may be considered clinically relevant.
Statistically significant relationships were observed between many parameters. For instance, mental well-being showed a strong positive correlation with emotional intelligence (r=0.632), social anxiety (r=0.611), spiritual well-being (r=0.597), WHO well-being (r=0.660), and resilience (r=0.580), suggesting that students who reported higher levels of mental well-being also tended to have better emotional control, stronger spirituality, and greater resilience.
Moreover, WHO well-being was notably correlated with resilience (r=0.719), spiritual well-being (r=0.628), and mental well-being (r=0.660), implying a strong interconnectedness among these domains. Physical activity showed a relatively weaker but still significant positive relationship with social anxiety (r=0.265) and WHO well-being (r=0.204). Psychological distress, on the other hand, negatively correlated with most parameters, including mental well-being (r=-0.172), WHO well-being (r=-0.100), and physical activity (r=-0.091), indicating that students experiencing more psychological distress tended to report poorer outcomes across several dimensions (Table 2).
Table 2. Interrelationship of students’ multidimensional health assessment
![src=./files/hehp/images/HTML_Publish/80696/2.png]()
Various facets of health (mental, emotional, spiritual, and physical) were deeply interconnected and cannot be viewed as separate entities. These dimensions do not operate in isolation but rather interact with and reinforce each other in complex ways. For instance, an improvement in one aspect, such as spiritual well-being, can lead to positive changes in other dimensions. As a student’s emotional intelligence strengthens, they may develop better coping strategies for stress and anxiety, which, in turn, could enhance their mental well-being and resilience. Similarly, a student’s physical health, particularly through regular exercise, can foster emotional stability and positively impact their spiritual well-being, creating a feedback loop that strengthens overall resilience.
Discussion
This research aimed to explore physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual dimensions of well-being. The students’ physical activity engagement data suggest that the considerable number of students categorized under low and moderate physical activity engagement is noteworthy. When combined, these two groups comprised a majority, indicating that most university students were not meeting optimal levels of physical activity. This trend reflects a potential gap in daily physical routines that are essential for promoting holistic health. The pattern of inactivity or minimal engagement may influence students’ physical resilience, energy levels, and even academic performance, revealing a lifestyle concern within the university context.
These findings align with existing literature that has documented a similar trend of insufficient physical activity among university students. For instance, studies have shown that sedentary lifestyles are increasingly prevalent in higher education settings due to academic workloads and screen-based routines [42, 43]. Additionally, researchers have emphasized that many students do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity, which contributes to physical and psychological stress [44]. Similar results have been reported in a nationwide survey, indicating that physical inactivity remains a common issue among young adults in academic institutions [11].
In terms of students’ mental well-being, mental well-being among university students was largely around a midpoint, neither thriving nor severely distressed. The limited number of students who reported high mental well-being highlights a potential lack of positive psychological experiences, such as life satisfaction, emotional stability, and a sense of purpose. Moreover, the notable proportion of students categorized as having below average to very low mental well-being reflects ongoing challenges related to stress, academic demands, and social pressures. These results align with prior studies that emphasize the mental health vulnerabilities faced by university students. Research consistently shows that the academic environment, combined with transitional life stressors, often contributes to moderate to poor mental well-being [45]. In a related study, students report elevated stress levels and limited emotional coping mechanisms, further supporting the trend observed in this research [46]. Another investigation found that only a minority of students exhibit high psychological well-being, with the majority experiencing mental states ranging from moderate stability to poor functioning [47].
Furthermore, regarding students’ emotional intelligence, emotional awareness, and control were generally strong among the students. High levels of emotional intelligence often indicate that students can handle stress, understand others’ emotions, and make sound decisions in social situations. The smaller percentages of students with low to very low emotional intelligence suggest that only a few may struggle with self-awareness or emotional regulation. Overall, the emotional state of most students appeared stable and adaptive, contributing to better relationships and coping strategies. These findings are consistent with recent studies highlighting emotional intelligence as a growing strength among college students. Students with higher emotional intelligence tend to perform better academically and socially due to improved emotional regulation and empathy [48, 49]. Other scholars noted that emotional intelligence serves as a buffer against stress and helps maintain psychological well-being [50]. Additionally, a university-wide assessment revealed that emotional intelligence plays a key role in student leadership, teamwork, and resilience [51].
Furthermore, students’ social interaction anxiety suggests that social anxiety is a pressing concern among students, especially since only a small number report being fully comfortable in social interactions. This anxiety may stem from a fear of negative judgment, low self-confidence, or communication difficulties. When social anxiety is present, students may avoid opportunities for collaboration or limit their involvement in activities that require interpersonal interaction. These patterns may lead to isolation, reduced academic performance, and lower emotional well-being. These results are consistent with recent studies emphasizing the prevalence of social interaction anxiety among university students. Research shows that students with high levels of social anxiety often withdraw from peer engagement and struggle with communication tasks [52]. Another study found that social interaction anxiety negatively affects academic participation and can contribute to emotional exhaustion [53]. Furthermore, it has been reported that this type of anxiety often coexists with depression and stress among students, impacting their overall well-being [54].
Moreover, regarding students’ spiritual well-being, most students were spiritually aware but not deeply anchored. Their spiritual beliefs and values were present but may not yet fully influence their sense of purpose or coping strategies in a consistent manner. The moderate rating in “Spiritual Struggles or Doubts” suggests that questions or uncertainties about faith and meaning are still common among students, which may affect how they find inner peace or make sense of life’s challenges. Despite holding spiritual beliefs, students may still seek deeper personal meaning and spiritual grounding. These findings align with previous research noting that university students often report moderate levels of spiritual well-being, as they are in a developmental stage where identity and beliefs are still forming [55]. Other studies also highlight that spiritual well-being can serve as a buffer against stress and psychological distress, even when not fully developed [56]. Additionally, students with moderate spiritual well-being are more likely to experience emotional resilience and social empathy, supporting the value of spirituality in holistic health [1].
Regarding students’ psychological distress, psychological distress was a critical concern among university students, with only a small portion showing signs of emotional well-being. The high percentage of students classified as likely having severe disorders suggests a pervasive strain on their mental health. This considerable prevalence may reflect the intense academic, social, and personal pressures that students face. It also highlights how mental health issues may be normalized or overlooked in university settings, affecting students’ ability to fully engage and thrive in their environments.
The high incidence of psychological distress among students mirrors findings from other research emphasizing
Holistic well-being refers to a comprehensive state of health that encompasses various dimensions of human life, including the physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects [1]. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of these dimensions, suggesting that optimal well-being is achieved not merely through the absence of illness but through balance and harmony across all areas of life [2]. This approach views individuals as whole beings whose experiences and health are influenced by multiple internal and external factors [3]. As such, promoting holistic well-being requires addressing more than just physical symptoms; it involves fostering mental clarity, emotional stability, social support, and spiritual purpose [4].
University students today face a range of challenges that significantly impact their holistic well-being. Academically, they often experience pressure to perform, which contributes to stress, anxiety, and mental fatigue [5]. In addition, many students report feelings of isolation, especially those studying far from home or navigating the transition to adulthood, which affects their emotional and social stability [6]. The lack of regular physical activity and poor health habits, such as insufficient sleep and unhealthy eating, further contribute to the decline in their physical well-being [7].
Another pressing issue is the spiritual disconnection felt by many students in modern academic environments. As institutions focus more on academic performance and technological advancement, students may struggle to find meaning, purpose, and inner peace—key elements of spiritual well-being [8]. Furthermore, disruptions brought about by social media, global crises, and uncertainty about the future have made it harder for students to maintain emotional resilience and form deep social connections [9]. These combined stressors often lead to a fragmented sense of self and decreased life satisfaction among university learners [10].
Studies on student well-being consistently highlight the importance of maintaining physical health, which is closely linked to academic performance and overall life satisfaction. Regular physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive function, reduce symptoms of anxiety, and promote better sleep patterns among university students [11]. However, research indicates that many students fail to meet the recommended levels of physical activity due to academic demands and sedentary lifestyles [12]. On the mental health front, increasing rates of stress, depression, and anxiety have been reported among university populations, often attributed to academic pressure, financial stress, and a lack of support systems [13, 14]. Mental well-being is essential for concentration, emotional regulation, and resilience; yet many students hesitate to seek help due to stigma or limited access to mental health services [15].
Emotional well-being plays a crucial role in students’ academic success and overall quality of life, yet many struggle with stress, mood disorders, and emotional instability due to academic pressures and personal challenges [16]. Research indicates that students with strong emotional regulation skills are better equipped to handle setbacks, maintain motivation, and develop resilience in high-pressure environments [17, 18]. However, social well-being also significantly influences emotional health, as students with strong interpersonal relationships tend to experience lower levels of stress and higher life satisfaction [19, 20]. Studies highlight that a lack of social connections, particularly among first-year and international students, can lead to loneliness, social isolation, and even symptoms of depression [21, 22]. Supportive peer networks, mentorship programs, and inclusive campus environments are essential for fostering both emotional and social well-being among university students [23, 24].
Spiritual well-being, often overlooked in academic settings, has been found to contribute significantly to students’ sense of purpose, inner peace, and resilience during times of stress [25]. Research suggests that students who engage in spiritual practices or have a strong sense of meaning in life tend to experience better emotional health and cope more effectively with academic and personal challenges [26]. In parallel, sleep is another critical yet commonly neglected dimension of student well-being, with studies revealing that poor sleep quality and insufficient rest are strongly linked to decreased academic performance, heightened stress, and mental health issues [27]. Many university students suffer from irregular sleep patterns due to demanding schedules and digital distractions, which can lead to chronic fatigue and emotional instability [28]. Promoting spiritual grounding and healthy sleep habits is thus essential for supporting a more balanced and holistic student life [29].
Despite numerous studies addressing individual aspects of student well-being, such as physical health, mental wellness, emotional regulation, social connection, and spiritual growth, there remains insufficient data that holistically assesses these dimensions as a unified construct, particularly among university students in the Philippines. Most existing research tends to focus on singular components rather than examining how these elements interact to shape overall student wellness. This study sought to fill that gap by conducting a multidimensional assessment of holistic well-being among university students, providing a more comprehensive understanding of their lived experiences. The primary purpose of this research was to explore physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual dimensions of well-being to inform more inclusive, targeted, and culturally responsive support strategies for student development and well-being.
This research is important as it provides valuable insights into the holistic well-being of university students, helping respondents better understand their overall health and areas needing support. It contributes to the growing body of knowledge by offering a multidimensional perspective that integrates physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects—an approach that remains limited in the local literature. For the wider academic community, this study presents a novel framework for understanding student wellness in a more inclusive and culturally relevant manner. The findings may serve as a basis for developing targeted interventions, policies, and programs that promote holistic student development in Philippine higher education institutions.
Instrument and Methods
Research design
This study employed a quantitative research design, specifically the descriptive correlational method. Quantitative research focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and generalizations about a population [30]. The descriptive correlational approach, in particular, aims to describe the characteristics of parameters and examine the relationships between them without manipulating any conditions or parameters [31]. This design allows for an objective and systematic investigation of the different dimensions of holistic well-being among university students.
The use of quantitative research, particularly the descriptive correlational design, is most appropriate for this study as it seeks to assess and analyze the relationships among various dimensions of holistic well-being, namely physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects. This method enables the researcher to gather measurable data from a large number of respondents, allowing for statistical analysis and meaningful interpretation of patterns. It also provides a structured approach to exploring how each dimension of well-being relates to the others. Most importantly, it supports the study’s goal of presenting a comprehensive view of student well-being without altering existing conditions.
Respondents and sampling
The study was conducted from October 2024 to May 2025. A total of 1,199 university students selected through simple random sampling participated in the study. Simple random sampling is a probability sampling technique in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring fairness and reducing selection bias [32]. This method was deemed most appropriate for the study as it allows for the collection of diverse and representative data across various academic programs and year levels without favoring any subgroup. By using this technique, the findings can be more confidently generalized to the broader student population, enhancing the validity and reliability of the results.
Research tools
This study adopted a range of standardized tools to measure the multiple dimensions of holistic well-being. Physical activity was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [33], which has a reliability coefficient of 0.80. Mental well-being was measured using the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale [34], with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89. Emotional well-being was evaluated using the Brief Emotional Intelligence Scale-10 (BEIS-10) [35], which has a reported reliability index of 0.84. Social well-being was measured through the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) [36], which has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88. Additionally, spiritual well-being was assessed using the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire (SWBQ) [37], which demonstrated a reliability score of 0.89.
To further assess related constructs, the study included the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) [38], known for its strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91. The WHO-5 Well-Being Index [39] was used as a general measure of subjective well-being, with a reliability coefficient of 0.88. Resilience was measured using the Nicholson McBride Resilience Questionnaire (NMRQ) [40], which has a reported Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83. Lastly, sleep quality was assessed through the Sleep Quality Questionnaire [41], which has a reliability index of 0.86. The use of these validated instruments ensured the accuracy and reliability of the data gathered across the study’s multidimensional framework of well-being.
Statistical analysis
Both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used to analyze the data comprehensively. Descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, mean, and composite mean, were utilized to summarize and describe the students’ physical activity engagement, multidimensional health dimensions, and overall well-being. To test the relationships among the parameters, the study used multiple Pearson correlation coefficients. This statistical technique was deemed most appropriate because it effectively measures the strength and direction of linear relationships between multiple continuous parameters simultaneously. It allowed the researchers to understand how different aspects of health and well-being interconnect, providing a robust basis for interpreting the complexity of the students’ holistic experiences. Through this approach, the study ensured a thorough and reliable examination of the data. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 29 at a significance level of p<0.05.
Findings
Out of 1,199 respondents, 324 students (27.0%) reported low physical activity engagement, 460 students (38.0%) had moderate engagement, and 415 students (35.0%) demonstrated high physical activity engagement. This indicates that a significant portion of the student population fell within the lower and moderate activity levels, with just over a third engaging in high physical activity.
In addition, 95 students (8.0%) were identified as having very low mental well-being, 176 cases (15.0%) with below-average mental well-being, 827 cases (69.0%) with average mental well-being, and 101 students (8.0%) with high mental well-being. This indicates that most students fell within the average category, with only a small fraction experiencing high levels of mental wellness.
Out of 1,199 students, 34 students (3%) were identified as having very low emotional intelligence, 94 cases (8%) with low emotional intelligence, 261 students (22%) with moderate emotional intelligence, 496 (41%) with high emotional intelligence, and 314 (26%) with very high emotional intelligence. This indicates that most students possessed high levels of emotional intelligence.
Also, 329 cases (27.0%) reported low or no social interaction anxiety, 618 cases (51.0%) had mild to moderate levels, 242 cases (20.0%) experienced moderate to high anxiety, and 10 cases (0.8%) reported severe social interaction anxiety. This indicates that a significant portion of the students experienced some form of social anxiety, with many falling under the moderate to high category.
All aspects of spiritual well-being fell under moderate spiritual well-being, with the highest mean in “Beliefs and Life Philosophy” (3.31), followed by “Belief in a Higher Power and Support” (3.25), and the lowest in “Spiritual Struggles or Doubts” (2.85). The grand mean across all components was 3.12, indicating an overall moderate level of spiritual well-being (Table 1).
Table 1. Students’ spiritual well-being
Out of 1,199 respondents, 84 cases (7.0%) were likely to be well, 136 cases (11.0%) were likely to have a mild disorder, 168 cases (14.0%) were likely to have a moderate disorder, and a striking 811 cases (68.0%) were likely to have a severe disorder. Thus, the overwhelming majority of students were experiencing significant psychological distress.
Also, 136 cases (11.0%) fell under the category of poor well-being, which may indicate possible clinical depression. Meanwhile, 457 cases (38.0%) were classified as having low well-being, suggesting a need for monitoring or support. A total of 606 cases (51.0%) exhibited good well-being, reflecting positive mental health.
Among the 1,199 respondents, 533 (44.0%) were at the developing level of resilience, 307 (26.0%) had an established level, 196 (16.0%) demonstrated a strong level, and 163 (14.0%) showed an exceptional level of resilience. In addition, 188 students (16.0%) had good sleep quality, while 1,011 students (84.0%) reported poor sleep quality that may be considered clinically relevant.
Statistically significant relationships were observed between many parameters. For instance, mental well-being showed a strong positive correlation with emotional intelligence (r=0.632), social anxiety (r=0.611), spiritual well-being (r=0.597), WHO well-being (r=0.660), and resilience (r=0.580), suggesting that students who reported higher levels of mental well-being also tended to have better emotional control, stronger spirituality, and greater resilience.
Moreover, WHO well-being was notably correlated with resilience (r=0.719), spiritual well-being (r=0.628), and mental well-being (r=0.660), implying a strong interconnectedness among these domains. Physical activity showed a relatively weaker but still significant positive relationship with social anxiety (r=0.265) and WHO well-being (r=0.204). Psychological distress, on the other hand, negatively correlated with most parameters, including mental well-being (r=-0.172), WHO well-being (r=-0.100), and physical activity (r=-0.091), indicating that students experiencing more psychological distress tended to report poorer outcomes across several dimensions (Table 2).
Table 2. Interrelationship of students’ multidimensional health assessment
Various facets of health (mental, emotional, spiritual, and physical) were deeply interconnected and cannot be viewed as separate entities. These dimensions do not operate in isolation but rather interact with and reinforce each other in complex ways. For instance, an improvement in one aspect, such as spiritual well-being, can lead to positive changes in other dimensions. As a student’s emotional intelligence strengthens, they may develop better coping strategies for stress and anxiety, which, in turn, could enhance their mental well-being and resilience. Similarly, a student’s physical health, particularly through regular exercise, can foster emotional stability and positively impact their spiritual well-being, creating a feedback loop that strengthens overall resilience.
Discussion
This research aimed to explore physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual dimensions of well-being. The students’ physical activity engagement data suggest that the considerable number of students categorized under low and moderate physical activity engagement is noteworthy. When combined, these two groups comprised a majority, indicating that most university students were not meeting optimal levels of physical activity. This trend reflects a potential gap in daily physical routines that are essential for promoting holistic health. The pattern of inactivity or minimal engagement may influence students’ physical resilience, energy levels, and even academic performance, revealing a lifestyle concern within the university context.
These findings align with existing literature that has documented a similar trend of insufficient physical activity among university students. For instance, studies have shown that sedentary lifestyles are increasingly prevalent in higher education settings due to academic workloads and screen-based routines [42, 43]. Additionally, researchers have emphasized that many students do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity, which contributes to physical and psychological stress [44]. Similar results have been reported in a nationwide survey, indicating that physical inactivity remains a common issue among young adults in academic institutions [11].
In terms of students’ mental well-being, mental well-being among university students was largely around a midpoint, neither thriving nor severely distressed. The limited number of students who reported high mental well-being highlights a potential lack of positive psychological experiences, such as life satisfaction, emotional stability, and a sense of purpose. Moreover, the notable proportion of students categorized as having below average to very low mental well-being reflects ongoing challenges related to stress, academic demands, and social pressures. These results align with prior studies that emphasize the mental health vulnerabilities faced by university students. Research consistently shows that the academic environment, combined with transitional life stressors, often contributes to moderate to poor mental well-being [45]. In a related study, students report elevated stress levels and limited emotional coping mechanisms, further supporting the trend observed in this research [46]. Another investigation found that only a minority of students exhibit high psychological well-being, with the majority experiencing mental states ranging from moderate stability to poor functioning [47].
Furthermore, regarding students’ emotional intelligence, emotional awareness, and control were generally strong among the students. High levels of emotional intelligence often indicate that students can handle stress, understand others’ emotions, and make sound decisions in social situations. The smaller percentages of students with low to very low emotional intelligence suggest that only a few may struggle with self-awareness or emotional regulation. Overall, the emotional state of most students appeared stable and adaptive, contributing to better relationships and coping strategies. These findings are consistent with recent studies highlighting emotional intelligence as a growing strength among college students. Students with higher emotional intelligence tend to perform better academically and socially due to improved emotional regulation and empathy [48, 49]. Other scholars noted that emotional intelligence serves as a buffer against stress and helps maintain psychological well-being [50]. Additionally, a university-wide assessment revealed that emotional intelligence plays a key role in student leadership, teamwork, and resilience [51].
Furthermore, students’ social interaction anxiety suggests that social anxiety is a pressing concern among students, especially since only a small number report being fully comfortable in social interactions. This anxiety may stem from a fear of negative judgment, low self-confidence, or communication difficulties. When social anxiety is present, students may avoid opportunities for collaboration or limit their involvement in activities that require interpersonal interaction. These patterns may lead to isolation, reduced academic performance, and lower emotional well-being. These results are consistent with recent studies emphasizing the prevalence of social interaction anxiety among university students. Research shows that students with high levels of social anxiety often withdraw from peer engagement and struggle with communication tasks [52]. Another study found that social interaction anxiety negatively affects academic participation and can contribute to emotional exhaustion [53]. Furthermore, it has been reported that this type of anxiety often coexists with depression and stress among students, impacting their overall well-being [54].
Moreover, regarding students’ spiritual well-being, most students were spiritually aware but not deeply anchored. Their spiritual beliefs and values were present but may not yet fully influence their sense of purpose or coping strategies in a consistent manner. The moderate rating in “Spiritual Struggles or Doubts” suggests that questions or uncertainties about faith and meaning are still common among students, which may affect how they find inner peace or make sense of life’s challenges. Despite holding spiritual beliefs, students may still seek deeper personal meaning and spiritual grounding. These findings align with previous research noting that university students often report moderate levels of spiritual well-being, as they are in a developmental stage where identity and beliefs are still forming [55]. Other studies also highlight that spiritual well-being can serve as a buffer against stress and psychological distress, even when not fully developed [56]. Additionally, students with moderate spiritual well-being are more likely to experience emotional resilience and social empathy, supporting the value of spirituality in holistic health [1].
Regarding students’ psychological distress, psychological distress was a critical concern among university students, with only a small portion showing signs of emotional well-being. The high percentage of students classified as likely having severe disorders suggests a pervasive strain on their mental health. This considerable prevalence may reflect the intense academic, social, and personal pressures that students face. It also highlights how mental health issues may be normalized or overlooked in university settings, affecting students’ ability to fully engage and thrive in their environments.
The high incidence of psychological distress among students mirrors findings from other research emphasizing